Article Analysis on Marijuana

Medical Marijuana? A young woman has HIV. In fact, she has had HIV for 7 years. She contracted it from her boyfriend after her first sexual experience. Unfortunately, she has taken a turn for the worse. Her body is now deteriorating. She is going through cachexia, what one would refer to as HIV wasting syndrome. Cachexia defined, is the physical wasting and malnutrition of the body that is associated with chronic disease. HIV wasting syndrome causes infected people to lose weight and to suffer from damaging diarrhea, among other things. She is always in an extensive amount of pain, affecting numerous parts of her body. The physicians that she visits have tried countless treatments to alleviate her suffering; however, nothing seems to work. There is an experimental drug, on the other hand, whose efficacy to alleviate HIV wasting symptoms is being tested now. The drug that could help ease this young woman’s pain and suffering is cannabis or, in other words, marijuana. Marijuana, in most states, is said to have no medical benefits. Therefore, it is considered a schedule 1 controlled drug by the national government. This means that marijuana cannot be used as treatment for any medical conditions or ailments. The young girl now faces the grim reality that something out there may be able to lessen her suffering, but because of governmentally mandated laws, she will not be able to obtain it lawfully. Many American citizens face this scenario each year. Whether marijuana is illegal or not is not up for debate in this essay. What is up for discussion is if marijuana can be used as an effective drug to provide medically defined sick individuals with relief from what ails them. As afore mentioned, this essay is to discuss the legalization or continued illegalization of medical marijuana for the sake of the many citizens in poor health. David G. Evans wrote a letter to the Time magazine editor entitled, â€Å"Medical Marijuana: an oxymoron†. David G. Evans argues that the national government should continue the prohibition of Medical Marijuana. His most justified argument is the fact that the Food and Drug Administration has yet to approve medical marijuana for medical use (Evans par. 2). On the other hand, Kevin O’Brien and Peter A. Clark argue for the legalization of medical marijuana in needed cases. They claim that in some instances medical marijuana is the only form of medicine that is effective. They both collaborated to write the case study â€Å"Mothers and Son: the case of Medical Marijuana†. A third article will be used to discredit or reinforce each article’s claims in a judicious indiscriminate manner. The third article is a research paper written by Tia Taylor from the American College of Physicians. The article is regarding medical marijuana. This in-depth researched paper has highly researched and supported arguments. The research paper’s goal is to clarify the Physicians’ intentions for medical marijuana and to argue reasons how medical marijuana could be an asset to the medical field. The two articles are well written as well as principally factual. Notwithstanding, one article is more persuasive and more factually based then the other. The case study â€Å"Mother and son: the case of medical marijuana† has slightly more reasonable claims, therefore it would seem to have the better argument. In an attempt to be unbiased, a comprehensive analysis of both articles is needed. This will be done in a way that discusses each author’s claims and some of their intrinsic worth. The title of the first article is â€Å"Medical Marijuana: an oxymoron. † This article is a letter to the editor printed in Time Magazine and written by David G. Evans. David G. Evans is the executive director of the Drug-Free Schools Coalition, a program that teaches children about the dangers of using drugs. His job qualifications entail knowing information about marijuana and other harmful drugs. As a result, he is well informed about issues of drugs as well as being a stern opponent of anything pro-drug. He makes a great deal of relevant claims. One such claim is that the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has yet to approve smoked marijuana as medicine (Evans par. 2). This is because smoked marijuana has yet to meet the clinical trial standards for public use. Many organizations reject marijuana because smoked marijuana is â€Å"crude† or ineffective (Evans par. 4). Marijuana is not a very good choice of medicine when compared to other safer and effective drugs. Evans claims that smoking is not the most effective way to deliver the drug to the body (Evans par. 5). In addition to not being able to calculate the dosage of marijuana effectively, there are harmful side effects that the use of marijuana can create. He claims that marijuana use increases the chances of addiction and drug use among children (Evans par. 7). He also claims that marijuana’s continued mainstreaming is obstructing children’s view of it as a dangerous drug. He goes on to say that, the states with pro-medical marijuana â€Å"initiatives† have the highest amount of drug addictions (Evans par. 7). He goes on to end by saying that he is a cancer survivor and he knows how it feels to have feelings of hopelessness (Evans par. 9). He says that he is not against people who actually need medical marijuana. He is in opposition to the people who will manipulate the system to support their drug habits (Evans par. 8). The following article is entitled â€Å"Mother and son: the case of medical marijuana† from The Hastings Center Report. This second article is a case study done by Kevin 0’Brien and Peter A. Clark. The subject of the case study is a family, a mother and her seven-year-old son JJ. JJ is hyperactive and aggressive; in fact, he has been like this for most of his life (Clark, O’Brien par 1). He has seen numerous physicians as well as had numerous medicines prescribed to help treat his condition (Clark, O’Brien 2). Nonetheless, nothing seems to work very effectively. JJ’s mother began trying to find alternatives that could possibly help her son. In 2001, she discovered that marijuana could possibly help her son (Clark, O’Brian par. 3). With counsel from her son’s physician, she began JJ on a daily regimen of marijuana. Thus far, JJ’s mother has seen improvement in her son’s condition after treating him with medical marijuana. Medical marijuana has helped this young child function. Kevin O’Brien and Peter A. Clark have written their opinions in this case study; however, this essay will only focus on Peter A. Clark’s opinion for the sake of time. Peter A. Clark is an associate professor of health administration and theology at Saint Joseph's University in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. He is also the bioethicist for Mercer Health System in Philadelphia. He supports the use of medical marijuana. He reinforces his opinion by using information from eleven scientists commissioned by the president of the United States and appointed by the Institute of Medicine to study marijuana in 1999 (Clark, O’Brian par. 14). The reports say that the benefits of the medical use of marijuana are limited because of the adverse affect of the smoke. They still recommended the use of it if no other options were effective. They also found that administering the drug to sick people does not influence the drug use of the general public. According to the study, marijuana is not a gateway drug and the fact that the government still has not reclassified marijuana as a schedule 2 drug is jeopardizing the health and well-being of many Americans (Clark, O’Brian par. 14). He says that we are now faced with two good and bad consequences: marijuana can sometimes work better than some conventional methods and marijuana has adverse long-term effects that can lead to addiction (Clark, O’ Brian par. 5). He also talks about the fact that Marinol is an alternative to marijuana; however, it has its shortcomings (Clark, O’Brien par. 17). Marinol is a synthetic form of marijuana. Although it negates the negative effects of marijuana, Marinol is very expensive: $500 dollars for 100 ten-milligram capsules. It is reported by patient s that Marinol is very strong but weakens severely after continued use. He also says that studies show that marijuana works more effectively than Marinol. That is why marijuana is a better choice of drug than Marinol both costliness and effectiveness (Clark, O’Brian par. 17). He believes that the only main concerns about medical marijuana are the chances of long-term complications and the fact that the dosage, sometime in the future, will have to be increased (Clark, O’Brien par. 18). He ends by saying that it is unacceptable for physicians to refuse to offer medicinal marijuana to patients. Some patients are suffering badly and traditional treatments are not working for them (Clark, O’Brien par. 18). The doctor is obligated to help the patient by any means necessary. Both of the articles talk about whether or not smoked marijuana is an effective way to administer cannabis to a patient. I believe that this argument is a very important argument in order to show which author supports their argument with strong, factual evidence. However, to do this effectively another more proven source must be introduced. The third article is a paper written by Tia Taylor from the American College of Physicians titled â€Å"Supporting Research into the Therapeutic Role of Marijuana†. This article is more scientifically based then the other two. The article is a position paper showing the American College of Physicians’ reasons why they believe the government should support the scientific study of medical marijuana. The position paper has very well written arguments; however, to reach a well thought out conclusion for this essay I will only use one authoritative argument. In â€Å"Supporting Research into the Therapeutic Role of Marijuana†, one of the arguments that Tia Taylor writes about is the difference between smoke marijuana and an orally administered form of marijuana (American College Par. 22). She says that when first administered, oral THC is much slower reacting than its counterpart is. According to the article, oral THC also produces adverse symptoms that last more extensively han those created from smoking marijuana do (American College Par. 22). The article says that smoked THC imbibes quickly through the bloodstream; therefore, the effects are felt quicker than orally administered THC. She ends by saying that in some situation smoked marijuana can be a more appropriate approach than the oral form of THC. At this moment, enough is known on the subject of oral THC opposed to smoke THC to make an informed decision on which author comprehensively argued his position. In his article, â€Å"Medical marijuana: an oxymoron†, David G. Evans says that smoked marijuana is an ineffective way to issue THC (Evans par. ). He also says that it is impossible to calculate the medical marijuana dosage this way. He finishes by discussing the adverse effect on health of marijuana. Although Kevin O'Brien does not talk about the efficacy of smoked marijuana, he does discuss the dosage problem of marijuana. He says that marijuana is a drug and since it is self-medicated, it is supposed to be cautiously used and not abused (O’Brien Par. 10). He also talks about the fact that marijuana is, in the long-term, harmful. However, sometimes there are no other options. Although both authors did not complete a very effective argument, David G. Evans’ argument is more plausible. His argument, in some ways, follows the analytical standard set. He talks more about facts than Kevin O’Brien, who uses more of an emotionally backed argument. The articles from Kevin O’Brien and David G. Evans have valid arguments. This part of the essay will examine the approach that each author took to discuss his respective opinion. Kevin O’Brien’s argument is less based on facts and more based upon emotion. He argues more about the fact that we should be sympathetic for those who need medical marijuana (O’Brien Par. 6). He loses a great deal of credibility relaying so heavily on emotion. David G. Evans bases his arguments on facts. He makes a considerable effort to leave emotion out of his article. He is a cancer survivor and he could have written regarding his own personal battle with a debilitating disease. However, he decided to make a more factual based argument. So therefore, in my opinion, David G. Evans article is more effective at getting his point across. Although this essay is about other authors’ opinion on a certain subject, this subject is very significant today. The national government is in dispute over the issue of medical marijuana, and not just medical marijuana; the government is debating whether to legalize marijuana completely. There are issues with medical marijuana that must be resolved before the government downgrades it to a schedule 2 drug. In addition, both authors recognized these issues and discussed them eloquently even though they had their own individual biases. The intent of this article is not to show that one of the authors was right and one was wrong, but just to show which author constructed a better argument. What needs to be taken away from this essay is the fact that the government needs to address the issue of medical marijuana straight out. Works citied â€Å"American College of Physicians. † Supporting Research into the Therapeutic Role of Marijuana. Philadelphia: American College of Physicians; 2008: Position Paper. Evans, David G. â€Å"Medical marijuana: an oxymoron? † Skin & Allergy News 36. 9 (2005): 14+. Academic OneFile. Web. 16 Nov. 2009. . Evans, David G. â€Å"Medical marijuana: an oxymoron? † Skin & Allergy News 36. 9 (2005): 14+. Academic OneFile. Web. 16 Nov. 2009. .

My Self

I believe that multifarious factors make a person an individual who is unique and distinct from others. Most of these factors work their magic early on in a man’s life, consisting of experiences in childhood and adolescence, which shape a person’s philosophy and values in life. I was fortunate to have a childhood that gave me a sense of respect towards my parents and other family members, especially my elders. My childhood and adolescence taught me to treat my family as a sacred thing and give it the importance it deserves. Moreover, I know that our socioeconomic status gave me the proper perspective and drive to aim high in my studies and avoid taking risks.My close relationship with my family also allowed me to become open to forming close and trusting friendships. Thus, my childhood can be generally described as non-traumatic, save for a single car accident that left me a few injuries. Nevertheless, such an experience did not prevent me from studying hard in class, w hich made adults see me as a smart child who has more than what meets the eyes.My open relationship with my friends and family shaped my disposition as an active and open-minded person, who is always willing to help. I am also generally jovial, ad this helps me get along with others easily. I continue to live by my academic skills I acquired since childhood, and I pride myself in being a fast learner and a good researcher. My view of manhood and sexuality is consistent with my personal philosophy, which is bound by honesty, dignity and resoluteness.Given this personal backdrop, I expect my future life to be bright and full of promises. I will work hard to achieve a happy family life and a successful professional career. Therefore, I will keep on pursuing further studies, careful not to let any kind of obstacle get in my way. I know that my friends and family would be with me every step of the way while I tread the road to personal growth and fulfillment.

Benefits of Breastfeeding

Breastfeeding Module – HUG 2121 This essay will explore various factors within breastfeeding, it will focus on the long and short term health benefits of breastfeeding, for both the mother and baby it will also discuss the reasons why women chose not to breastfeed, especially within the western society. Contributory factors such as social, psychological, cultural and political all contribute to the reasons women chose to breastfeed or not. WHO (2011), suggests that breast milk provides the necessary nutrients for up to the second half of the infants first year , and it also promotes sensory and cognitive development, and protection from infections and chronic illness. Breastfeeding has been also promoted by various studies and organisations and is said to be the healthiest and most effective way of feeding your baby, it not only increases bonding with the baby, but it also helps the mother to keep track of their babies health. Dykes (2002:98) The world health organisation(WHO) recommends that â€Å"mothers worldwide to exclusively breastfeed infants for the child's first six months in order to achieve optimal growth, development and health†. There are many advantages associated with breastfeeding your baby, such as low risk of child obesity, which in turn usually leads to type 2 diabetes  in later life and a low risk of acquiring other health problems such as eczema. Miller (1991:76). Breast milk also contains valuable antibodies from the mother that may help the baby resist infections, so this means the baby is not at a high risk of acquiring disease. There are various factors that influence the initiation and maintenance of breastfeeding, Earle (2002) recognises some of these factors, as the way the mother identifies herself, the fathers understanding on infant feeding, the personal factors involved and the sexualisation of breasts. The politics of breastfeeding is explained in detail by, Counihan (2008:467) stating that political obstacles include the â€Å"marketing practices of instant formula manufacturers†, and how such factors appear to have a positive impact on the choice women make in order to breastfeed or not. The article goes on to reflect breastfeeding rates in the UK; and the health benefits of breastfeeding for the mother as well as the infant. Despite attempts to reiterate to general public that ‘breast is best’, breastfeeding is still very much low in the western society (UNICEF, 2005). Protheroe et al (2003) discuss the issues behind this and explain the evidence that shows the health benefits of breastfeeding. Protheroe et al, (2003) also suggest that breastfeeding allows babies to have a better start in life than those who are formula fed. Due to both the short and long term health benefits associated with breastfeeding, Protheroe et al (2003) continues to argue that the main development of the infant is dependent on the nutrients breast milk provide. Breastmilk does not contain any extra ingredients that may cause the baby to have problems digesting it, so it is less strenuous for the baby. According to Allen and Hector (2005:42), they suggest that breastmilk is â€Å"uniquely engineered† for babies and that, it is biologically and naturally the correct way to feed babies. They also, argue that unlike formula milk breastfeeding has a vast number of health benefits for both mother and baby. Alexander et al. (2009:158) supports this claim and explains that breastfeeding provides a vast number of health benefits, â€Å"including protection against many acute and chronic diseases as well as advantages for general health, growth and development. UNICEF suggest that babies who are fed using breast milk substitutes have an increased risk of acquiring infections and diseases such as gastroenteritis, urinary tract infections, respiratory or chest infections, ear infections, and even childhood leukaemia and possibly sudden infant death syndrome, or cot death. Allen and Hector (2005:44) support this, and explain that breastfeeding â€Å"has been shown to be protective aga inst a large number of immediate and longer term health outcomes that are a significant burden on individuals, the health system and society. It is also suggested that babies who are breastfed are bound to have better neurological development. However, a study carried out by Holme et al (2010), aiming to establish the effect of breastfeeding on neurological development, does not support this study. They came to the conclusion that breastfeeding is not associated with intelligence quotient (IQ) and that â€Å"maternal and socio-economic characteristics† are particularly influential. Babies who are breastfed are also protected against diabetes mellitus. Whitney et al, ( 2010 ), breastfeeding is also associated with defending babies from long term ealth problems and disorders of the cardiovascular system as well as obesity, a very huge problem that most Western societies are finding difficult to control. Due to this factor alone, it is very important that breastfeeding is more w idely promoted and advised, with sufficient support systems for mothers who are breastfeeding or considering it. This will not only reduce the health issues associated with breastfeeding, but it will promote the health benefits involved. UNICEF (2011) suggests that there may be a link between breastfeeding and protection against multiple sclerosis, acute appendicitis and tonsillectomy. However, research within this area is still very limited, and nothing has been done to prove this may be true. Breastfeeding does not only benefit the health of the baby, but mothers who breastfeed have a reduced risk of multiple diseases and illnesses; such as, breast and ovarian cancer and osteoporosis. Breastfeeding also increases involution, whereby the mothers figure is most likely to return to normal, after pregnancy. Insel et al. (2009:538) support this, stating that breastfeeding stimulates uterine contractions, which aid in the uterus returning back to size. This is a very important factor to recognise especially for many mothers, due to the pressures associated with body image. If mothers are made aware of such benefits of breastfeeding, they may be more likely to breastfeed in order to promote the health and wellbeing of their baby and themselves, and maintain their figure. In addition breastfeeding means that mother and child are able to bond effectively; Insel et al. (2009:538) also state that if the baby is placed onto the breast instantly after delivery, these uterine contractions are able to control the level of blood lost in birth. Additionally by consuming a healthy diet, the mother is also able to understand and monitor any possible causes of any allergic reactions, infections or illnesses the baby develops. Lauwers and Swisher (2010:428) explain that exclusively breastfeeding, the breastmilk coats the baby’s intestinal tract with components in the breastmilk that ultimately prevent foreign proteins from entering the baby’s system and causing any allergic reactions. Pryor (2010:4) also suggests that the role of breastfeeding is very important especially if a mother and baby are bonding. This study showed that babies that interacted more with their mothers, stayed warmer, and cried less. It was also found that, although there were some difficulties to measure, if there was early skin-to-skin contact, there is still a very high possibility that breastfed babies were more likely to have a good early relationship with their mothers. A study conducted by Riodarn et al, (1998 ), shows that, breastfeeding rates within the United Kingdom (UK) are the lowest in both the developed world and Europe. Additionally the Infant Feeding Survey, from 2000 to 2005, found that the number of babies who were breastfed within the UK increased by 7 per cent and in both Scotland and Northern Ireland the initiation rates were raised by 8 per cent and only 7% in England and Wales. Although the statistics show a small rise in the number of breastfeeding mothers in the UK the number is still very low. Studies have found that most women, who do breastfeed, are usually from upper-class families whereas most economically disadvantaged women and teenagers continue to bottle feed their infants. Bryant et, al (1999:79). Efforts to improve breastfeeding initiation and duration among low income women have been tried however no success has been met. Therefore, it is important that an effort must be made to address the reasons for this problem and to identify breastfeeding promotion strategies that will overcome the barriers that are negatively influencing breastfeeding decisions in these particular populations. A lot of the women from low socio economic backgrounds, who chose not to breastfeed, is not because they just don’t care, but mostly because they live in an unsupportive or work in a non supportive environment. Other reasons why they do not breastfeed are that in low income women, their reasons not to breastfeed are closely related to social and cultural beliefs. Various studies have revealed that main issues that women from low income societies face, are that they are modest and embarrassed and the restrictions on their lifestyles, also play a huge role. Hartley,et al (1996:87). Other women however complained of physical discomfort and inconvenience. Some studies also found that some economically disadvantaged women feel a lack of confidence in their ability to produce an adequate quality or quantity of breast milk Marcus (2007). Living in a particular society usually influences many of your life choices, so if not breastfeeding is the cultural norm, for people living in these environments then chances of them breastfeeding is low. NICE, also suggests that in the UK alone most factors that also contribute to women overall not breastfeeding apart from the influence of society and culture, is the lack of continuity of care in the health services, clinical problems and the lack of preparation of health professionals and public in general to support breastfeeding effectively. Health care professionals also have a huge impact on women’s choices to breastfeed. The WHO and UNICEF launched the Baby Friendly Hospital Initiative in 1991, in order to provide information, support and assessment for health care workers in order to promote and encourage breastfeeding. This programme is very useful especially to new mothers because another reason why the rate of breastfeeding is low in the country is because; some women just don’t have enough information about it. This programme not only allows health professionals to encourage mothers on their own, but to also have the government to back up what they are saying. Arnez, et al (2004:67). Fletcher,et al(2000:98) however also suggests that whilst some women do have the information and are educated on all the reasons as to why breastfeeding is better, most women however usually just do what their, peers, parents or friends do. This suggestion is also supported By NICE, who also note that â€Å"a pregnant woman considering how to feed her baby may be influenced, positively or negatively, by the experiences of her friends and family, messages in the media, and the advice of her midwife and GP. Adequate advice is especially important for mothers because, although the choice is ultimately theirs, it is important for health professionals to know that they have given the mother as much information as possible and support in whatever decision they make. Riodarn, (2005:83) For the mothers who do chose to breastfeed, some of them end up discontinuing in many cases the reason being is that the mother’s report of ‘insufficient milk’ Ham lyn et al. (2002:54). This reason of not having enough milk may be influenced by the baby’s behaviour, the input of health professionals, the views of family and friends, and the mother’s own self-esteem, as well as clinical problems with feeding. If the mother feels as if she is not producing enough milk to feed her baby, then she can easily change to formula milk because, the stress of her thinking that the baby is starving would pressurise her to doing so Fletcher, et al (2000:43). It is especially important in situations such as these, that health professionals play a huge role in supporting the mother, because they are various reasons that can lead to such problems, so advice and a health knowledge would be needed. In most cases women tend to think this way because breast milk digests faster than formula milk, so the baby becomes hungry more often. So the support and advice from health professionals would help the mother to understand and not worry about this problem, Hartley et al (1996:31). It is very rare for anyone to suffer from not producing enough milk however, this is one of the main reasons why most women stop breastfeeding. Miller (1996:50) Suggests that it is especially women from low income backgrounds that usually use this as a reason to stop breastfeeding. However this can be argued that this excuse can be used by all women. A number of investigators suggest that this, is a condition that â€Å"spans a bio psychosocial continuum from a rare physiological situation to a condition embedded in psychological and social circumstances† Kumar, (2008:72). This method of encouragement was shown to have the greatest impact on women’s choice to breastfeed. The baby friendly initiative hospitals also support this and statistics show that these hospitals had increased their breastfeeding rates by more than 10% by comparing the year receiving Baby Friendly accreditation with four previous years, before they had the accreditation. In teenage mothers the need of support to initiate breastfeeding is prevalent, in most cases this is due to the vast influence young mothers get from the media, and the pressure from society. Appearance also plays a huge role in most women who decide to either breastfeed or not Scott, et al (1999:12). Most young mothers think that breastfeeding will make them socially unacceptable and make their breasts saggy. Most teenagers follow the media very closely and celebrity culture, so when they see or hear about certain things that their favourite celebrities have done they tend to follow in those footsteps. Teenagers are not the only population that the media influences in this particular area. In 2001 breastfeeding obtained a large amount of negative and controversial media coverage, when a woman was removed from a Delta Airlines flight because she refused to cover her child whilst she was breastfeeding (Marcus, 2007). Last  year,  famous  media  icon, Barbara Walters commented to millions of viewers, that â€Å"a breastfeeding woman made her feel uncomfortable while on a flight, Curran  (2006). Attitude such as this can influence women to not breastfeed, because they may start to feel embarrassed doing it. Although these are the most reasons why women do not breastfeed, other reasons may include sore nipples, or the pressure on going back to work. In some cases women chose not to breastfeed because they feel, the father of the baby would benefit from bottle feeding so that he too can get some sort of bonding with the baby during feeding, Curran (2006:12). Women often complain that their partners do not get to experience the same bond they do whilst feeding, Hollander (1995). Other health benefits said to be associated with breastfeeding are that minerals such as iron are present and lower in breast milk than in formula, so the minerals in breast milk are more likely to be completely absorbed by the baby Kumar, ( 2008:70 ). However In formula fed babies, the unabsorbed portions of minerals can change the balance of bacteria in the gut, which gives harmful bacteria a chance to grow, Foster (1995:45) this can often can cause constipation and lead to harder odorous stools than breastfed babies. In cases where women find that breastfeeding makes their nipples sore, it’s very important for health professionals to give them the relevant support and education on how to treat this problem. Most sore nipples can be helped by changing how the baby is attached to the mother’s breast, so talking to someone who has had specialist training in giving women support and information on baby feeding, would help. Midwives, health visitor or other specialist are also able  to help the mother, however it’s important for the mother to know that this information is readily available to them. The stigma attached to breastfeeding especially in the UK, has caused a lot of women to be cautious about it compared to other countries. The WHO statistics show that women in Asia and Africa are more comfortable breastfeeding compared to the Western Society. This information shows that although the women in England live in a country where healthcare and information is easily available to them compared to developing countries, their surroundings influence their decisions greatly. However women from other parts of the world such as Asia and Africa, do not particularly have media influences. Other reasons why Western countries have less women breastfeeding may be because, they have the formula milk easily available to them and it’s more convenient to their lifestyles. Formula feeding your baby especially in Western countries seems to be more ideal because of most work schedules and time off work given after the baby is born. In western culture a women’s breast is very closely associated with sex, so in most cases when a women is seen to be breastfeeding especially in public this is deemed as inappropriate Marcus, (2007). Most men also do not want to see their partner’s breastfeeding in public, because of the confusion over sexual role of the breast. If we compare this attitude to other countries, most women and men have strict rules on sex exposure and attitude. For example in Africa the majority of women that do have children are married and the number of teenage pregnancies is very low, so already the type of women that do get pregnant are usually young and married. Their culture on pregnancy, marriage and breastfeeding is also in most cases taught to them from a young age and it becomes a part of their culture. If the women’s grandmother and mother, both breastfed their babies they teach the daughter to do so, and because this is something that is taught growing up, it becomes the right choice for them. Having strong cultural beliefs has shown to have a huge impact on people particularly from this population, because they do not want to seem rebellious if they chose to do anything different from what they have been taught. Hollander, (1995) So in other words in most non Western countries the option to choose between formula milk and breastfeeding your baby is rarely given. In western culture however, because individuals tend to do their own thing and the choice for them to breastfeed or not is there this gives, the mother opportunity to weigh out her options on what suits her and baby. If her everyday life requires her to be busy perhaps finding the time to sit down, and relax and feed may seem impossible. Breastfed babies eat more often than bottle-fed babies because the fats and proteins in breast milk are more easily broken down than the fats and proteins in formula, so they are absorbed and used more quickly Kumar, (2002:90). This then means that the mother would have to breastfeed a lot more than she would with formula, so in a fast moving environment again this may not be ideal. In past years the facilities to actually breastfeed within the UK were very few, if women wanted to breastfeed their babies they were forced to either go and do it somewhere private or stay within their homes. It was only in 2010 that an equality act was carried out and passed to allow women to breastfeed anywhere, and to get public places and work places to facilitate this. In other cultures image concern is not as high as it is in the western culture so there are less cautious about it. Overall breastfeeding is a very important and extremely beneficial point to consider for all women and healthcare providers. BIBLIOGRAPHY Anderson, A. K. , Damio,  G. , Young, S. , Chapman,  D. , Perez-Escamilla,  R. (2005). A   Randomized  Trial  Assessing the  Efficacy  of Peer Counselling  on Exclusive  Breastfeeding   in  a  Predominantly  Latina  Low-Income  Community. Arch  Pediatrics  Adolescence   Medical,  15, 836-881. Arenz S, Ruckerl R, Koletzko B et al. 2004) Breastfeeding and childhood obesity: a systematic review. International Journal of Obesity. Bryant C, Coreil J, D’Angelo S, Bailey D, Lazarov M. (1992) A strategy for promoting breastfeeding among economically disadvantaged women and adolescents. NAACOGS Womens Health Nurs. 1992;3:723-730 Breastfeeding Among U. S. Children Born (1999),(2005), CDC National I mmunization Survey: 1999–2005. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; Atlanta: 2005 Curran,  J. (2006). Online  Update:   â€Å"Nurse-ins†Ã‚  planned  over ejection  of breast-feeding  N. M   mother. Las  Cruces  Sun-News. http://lcsun- news. om/portlet/article/html/fragments/print_articlejsp? articleID=469 Counihan, C. (2008) Food and Culture: A Reader 2nd ed. New York: Routledge Dykes F. Western medicine and marketing: Construction of an inadequate milk syndrome in lactating women. Health Care Women Int. 2002;23:492–502. EU (2004) Promoting, protecting and supporting breastfeeding: an action plan for Europe. Luxembourg: European Commission, Directorate for Public Health and Risk Assessment Earle, S. (2002) ‘Factors affecting the initiation of breastfeeding: implications for breastfeeding promotion’ Health Promotion International 17 (3) 205-214 Foster K, Lader D, Cheesbrough S. , Infant feeding (1995), The Stationery Office, London 1997 Fletcher, D, Harris, H, The implementation of the HOT program at the Royal Women's Hospital Breastfeeding Review 2000, 8 (1): 19-23 Hamlyn B, Brooker S, Oleinikova K et al. Infant Feeding (2000). Department of Health, the Scottish Executive, the National Assembly for Wales and the Department of Health, Social Services and Public Safety in Northern Ireland. London: The Stationary Office, 2002 Houston MJ (1984) Home support for the breast feeding mother. In: MJ Houston, editors Maternal and infant health care. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone. Hartley B, O’Connor M. (1996)Evaluation of the â€Å"Best Start† breastfeedingeducation program. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 150:868-871 Insel, P. , Turner, R. E. & Ross, D. (2009) Discovering Nutrition 3rd ed. Boston: Jones and Bartlett Publishers Inc. Lauwers, J. & Swisher, A. (2010) Counseling the Nursing Mother Boston: Jones and Bartlett Publishers Inc. Marcus, J. A. (2007,). Lactation  and the  law. Mothering (143), 48-57 Miller NH, Miller DJ, Chism M. Breastfeeding practices among resident physicians. Pediatrics 1996;98:434–437. Pryor, G. 2010) Nursing Mother, Working Mother: The essential guide to breastfeeding your baby before and after you return to work Sydney: Read How You Want Large Print Books Protheroe, L. , Dyson, L. , Renfew, M. J. , Bull, J. & Mulvihill, C. (2003) ‘The Effectiveness of Public Health Interventions to Promote the Initiation of Breastfeeding: Evidence Briefing’ National Health Service : Health Development Agency Kumar A, Kumar Rai A, Basu S, Dash D and Saran Singh J. Cord Blood and breast milk iron status in maternal anemia. Pediatrics. 2008: 121(3); e673-677. Accessed 5/29/2010. Kramer MS, Kakuma, R 2002. Optimal duration of exclusive breastfeeding. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2002, Issue 1. [Art. No. : CD003517. DOI: 10. 1002/14651858. CD003517] Riordan J. Breastfeeding and Human Lactation. 3rd. Jones and Bartlett Publishers; Sudbury, MA: 2005. Scott JA, Binns CW. (1999) Factors associated with the initiation and duration of breastfeeding: a review of the literature. Breastfeed Rev 1999; 7: 5–16. Scott JA, Shaker I, Reid M. Parental attitudes toward breastfeeding: their association with feeding outcome at hospital discharge. Birth 2004; 31: 125–31 UNICEF UK Baby Friendly Initiative. Baby Friendly hospitals show strong increase in breastfeeding rates. Baby Friendly News No. 6, July 2000. World Health Organization (2003) Global strategy for infant and young child feeding. In: Organization WH, ed. Geneva: World Health Organization. Whitney, E. , DeBruyne, L. K. , Pinna, K. & Rolfes, S. R. 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Critical Thinking Application Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Critical Thinking Application Paper - Essay Example Kirby and Goodpaster (2007) averred that thinking is â€Å"the activity of the brain that can potentially be communicated† (6). The role of expressing thoughts through communication, either through verbal or nonverbal means, is crucial in either speaking or writing. In this regard, the essay aims to proffer issues pertinent to describe critical thinking by using various sources. The discourse would likewise provide an example from personal experience in applying critical thinking to a work related decision, and the importance and benefits of critical thinking in the decision-making processes. Definitions of Critical Thinking The study conducted by Paton (2006) initially presented diverse definitions of critical thinking, to wit: â€Å"reasonable reflective thinking that is focused on deciding what to believe or do† â€Å"Ennis (1987) â€Å"purposeful, self regulatory judgment which results in interpretation, analysis, evaluation, and inference, as well as explanation of the evidential, conceptual, methodological, criteriological, and contextual considerations upon which that judgment is based. . .† (Facione 1990). ... etting, various opportunities for decision making require the application of critical thinking skills to ensure that judgments are made only after all alternative courses of actions have been exhausted. One envisions being a manager of an organization’s human resources division whose main responsibilities encompass the functions of acquisition, development and maintenance of human resources. Through all tasks require exemplary qualifications and competencies to exude leadership skills, one of the most challenging decisions are to retrench employees as a way of saving the organization. The critical thinking process that needs to be exercised in this scenario is the identification of employees to be retrenched based on factors such as performance, length of stay in the organization, leadership potentials, and demographic background. Further, senior management would expect a benefit versus cost analysis of possibly retaining a number, retrenching all identified personnel, or even closing or liquidating the assets of the organization at the extreme level. Through different analytical approaches (cost – benefit, employee performance appraisal results, financial conditions of performance) one is given the tools to use and apply to outline the courses of action, the advantages and disadvantages of each alternative, and the overall effect would be gauged in terms of costs, image, corporate responsibility and adherence to ethical standards. A manager whose critical thinking skills are not effectively and sufficiently honed to use analytical tools could make abrupt and harsh judgments and recommendations that could compromise the image and future survival of the organization. Wrong actions taken regarding firing employees, for example, could expose the organization to legal

The word Euthanasia Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5000 words

The word Euthanasia - Essay Example Encyclopedia Concise Britannica (2004 Edition) archived facts that euthanasia is painless killing of a person who has a painful, incurable disease or incapacitating disorder. Most legal systems consider it murder, though in many jurisdictions a physician may lawfully decide not to prolong the patient's life or may give drugs to relieve pain even if they shorten the patient's life. Associations promoting legal euthanasia exist in many countries. The legalization movement has gained ground with advancing medical technology, which has been used to prolong the lives of patients who are enduring extreme suffering or who are comatose or unable to communicate their wishes. Euthanasia was legalized in The Netherlands in 2001 and in Belgium in 2002. In 1997 Oregon became the first state in the United States of America to decriminalize physician-assisted suicide. Euthanasia, derived from Greek for "good death," refers to the termination of the life of a person suffering from a painful and incurable medical condition. It is also widely known as "mercy killing,". According to Doudera, A. Edward, and J. Douglas Peters, (eds. Legal and Ethical Aspects of Treating Critically and Terminally Ill Patients) Euthanasia is distinguished from suicide by the necessary participation of a third party, typically either a physician or family member. Twenty-first-century disputes over euthanasia are often seen as a by product of advances in biomedical technology capable of prolonging a person's life indefinitely. Indeed, the moral and legal aspects of euthanasia are extremely complicated, as experts distinguish between active and passive euthanasia as well as voluntary and involuntary euthanasia. Additional issues include the definition of a "terminal" illness and whether pain, an intractable disease, or both, are required to make the practice morally accepta ble. Such complexity has led to a variety of legal positions worldwide. The United States officially forbids euthanasia, while some European countries, such as Switzerland, Germany, Poland, and Norway, are more lenient allowing for a variety of mitigating circumstances and reduced criminal penalties. In 1993 the Netherlands passed a law prescribing guidelines for medically assisted suicide; Uruguay has exempted mercy killing from criminal prosecution since 1933. MERCY KILLING: THE ORIGIN & ITS CRITICAL ANALYSIS Mercy killing, (Humphry, Derek. Final Exit: The Practicalities of Self-Deliverance and Assisted Suicide for the Dying. Eugene, Ore.: Hemlock Society, 1991, Re ed 2006) practiced since time immemorial, has been debated throughout history. Ancient Greek, Indian, and Asian texts describe infanticide as an acceptable solution for children physically unsuited for or incapable of living. In Plato's Phaedo, when Socrates drinks hemlock, a poison, he maintains his dignity in death, an action immortalized in the modern pro-euthanasia organization, the Hemlock Society. While many other Greeks, including Aristotle and the Stoics, sanctioned

Law of Evidence for Forensic Scientists Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4250 words

Law of Evidence for Forensic Scientists - Essay Example Based on this research the defendant insured the plaintiff against loss and damage to his jewellery and property. In the insurance agreement, two notable exceptions were given by the defendant in the insurance contract: loss of jewellery to employees [or servants who worked in his premises] through dishonesty and breakage of antiques and chinas. The agreement made it clear that if any of these two incidents were to occur, the defendant would be free from any insurance payments. A robbery occurred at the plaintiff's premises and a safe was broken into and valuable jewels were stolen. The plaintiff had two employees, Mason and Brown. Mason had a group of friends who were members of a gang that was skilled in breaking into any safe. With knowledge of Mason's acquaintances, the defendant refused to pay the claims for insurance. They argued that Mason was a suspect and there was a big chance that he was involved in the robbery. The plaintiff argued against this position of the defendant. He stated that the burden of proof was on the defendant. This is because the defendant was alleging that Mason was part of the robbery and due to that, it was his responsibility to proof how he knew Mason was part of the theft. The defendant also argued that it is logical and obvious that Mason was involved in the robbery because his associates had insider information and could easily break into the plaintiff's premises and steal the jewels. ... The defendant also argued that it is logical and obvious that Mason was involved in the robbery because his associates had insider information and could easily break into the plaintiff's premises and steal the jewels. They went far to turn in evidence of Mason's character of a deviant. The circumstances showed clearly that the defendant had a strong point because Mason was likely to have brought in third parties to steal from his employers. Thus, both parties had a good case. The argument was who had the onus probandi to determine the facts of the situation at hand. The judge held that it was impossible to place the onus on the defendant. This is because the defendant is not the one who brought the case to court. It is the defendant who has been accused. There is therefore the need for some kind of evidence to be presented to show that he was liable to prosecution. The judge rendered the evidence presented by the defendant inadmissible and stated that in a criminal proceeding, such e vidence of the character of a party would lead to prejudice on the part of the judge. Thus, the plaintiff presented the contract for the insurance. The terms were read as the first form of evidence. The judge went through the case and identified the terms of the insurance contract and identified that there was a legal relationship between the defendant and the plaintiff. However, the plaintiff presented the contract for the insurance and indicated that the defendant was responsible to indemnify the loss. The judge insisted that the plaintiff showed evidence that the theft was of the nature that made the defendant liable to pay the insurance claims. In other words, the plaintiff had to turn

Occupational Health and Safety Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 3

Occupational Health and Safety - Essay Example Employees are also required to inspect hoses for leaks at every start of each shift. Further, hoses of oxygen and fuel gas, when taped together, should not exceed one-third of the entire length of the hose (osha.gov, 1996). Grease and oil are also potential hazards and OSHA requires that oxygen cylinders be kept away from grease or oil. Greasy clothes and oily surfaces should be kept away from getting in contact with oxygen cylinders, hoses or any other parts of the valves and regulators (osha.gov, 1996). The scenario showed that the cylinders were lying on the floor and were all stored together in the area. This poses a tripping hazard and greater tendency for the cylinders to roll and bump on each other. The smell of the room being similar to a nail-polish remover suggests that there is a leak in the acetylene cylinder. This suggests that the employee was not able to check the cylinders or the hoses for leakage. Further, the welder, not recognizing the smell is in a very dangerous situation because of the high flammability of acetylene. His activity of chipping the welding slag with the torch tip is high risk of creating sparks that can ignite the room and cause an explosion. With him wearing greasy gloves puts him at even greater risk because the material will immediately catch fire since he was already using the welding slag. The scenario given suggests a very unsafe working condition. It is then very important that employees in construction sites, in this case, those involved in welding and cutting, must be aware of the guidelines set by OSHA to be able to prevent any accidents that may occur in the work

Interest Group Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Interest Group - Essay Example n the media and popular culture, PETA has contributed directly and indirectly to the enactment of more comprehensive legislations concerned with animal rights. It has also played a central role – directly or indirectly – in the amendment of existing animal rights laws to create better, more holistic legislations that suit the animal rights agenda. The organization was formed in 1980 and has always been dedicated to protecting animals from abuse and suffering, especially at the hands of humans. PETA’s slogan is based on the notion that â€Å"animals are not ours to eat, wear, experiment on, or use for entertainment† (Singer 41). This message features prominently in the organization’s website, merchandise, and marketing material (Del Mar 26). The group trains members of the public and policymakers on animal abuse and advocates humane treatment of animals. Its headquarters are in Norfolk, Virginia, but it has international divisions to further its cause abroad. The organization believes that just like humans, animals have rights, and their best interests should always be considered, irrespective of their value to humans. Animals also experience pain and suffering and thrive when they are left to lead their lives in the way that fits their nature and environments. All of PETA’s activities are guided by the belief that all human and nonhuman beings have a right to be free from all forms of harm. According to the group’s mission statement, animal cruelty is one of the problems plaguing the world, and that deserves sufficient attention. The organization believes that everybody has a responsibility to prevent and oppose animal abuse at every opportunity (Singer 34). For 35 years, PETA has worked to create a global society in which people contemplate the needs of, according to Henry Beston, â€Å"the other nations† (Singer 57). In this regard, the group considers itself to be a protector of the rights of individual animals; this informs its belief that animals

Intertextual examination of two texts Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Intertextual examination of two texts - Essay Example Based on Bricklayer’s Boy, it is clear that the pressure put on the youths by their parents and the older generations damages the relationship between these two groups, often resulting in conflicts. In the Bricklayer’s Boy, one aspect brought out is that many young people, especially men, are required to do what their parents want them to do. This is often against the wish of the young people, and ends up straining their relationship with their parents and older generations. In this literally text, the narrator says that his father, a bricklayer, did not like his idea of becoming a newspaper reporter. According to his father, newspaper reporting paid â€Å"just a little more than construction does† (Lubrano, 5). He wanted to his son to pursue a more lucrative job like being a lawyer. This was the sole reason why his father worked so hard to educate him in college. This predicament, which most young people face, is also brought out in the article by Bruno Bettelheim (1968). In his article, Bettelheim notes that there is a conflict of generations because of â€Å"the parent who sees his child’s main task in life as the duty to execute his will or justify his existence† (Bettelheim, 74). When the child fails to honor or follow the parent’s wishes, as the narrator in Bricklayer’s Boy did, then the relationship between the parents and children is damaged. Bricklayer’s Boy story also points to the belief held by most parents: their children have to succeed where they failed. Throughout the story, the narrator’s father wanted his son to become a better person because he had failed to live up to his dreams. In the story, it is noted that the â€Å"father wanted to be a singer and actor when he was young...† (Lubrano, 20). However, he had to do what was available in order to support his parents at the time. In the end, he expected his son to do something that could earn him bigger money just as singing and acting would have earned him money. As the

Understanding and interpreting financial statements Dissertation

Understanding and interpreting financial statements - Dissertation Example Understanding and interpreting financial statements The information contained in the financial statements can be used by financial analysts to perform ratio analysis. The purpose of this paper is to analyze the financial performance of Morrisons Inc. Company Profile: Morrisons Morrisons was founded in 1899 by William Morrison. The first supermarket chain was opened in 1961. Today the company has become the 4th largest supermarket retailer in the United Kingdom . The initial public offering of the company occurred in 1967. The company serves over 10 million customers each week across its network of 382 stores. Morrisons helps the United Kingdom’s economy by providing the community with 124,000 jobs. One of the aspects of the Morrisons operation that makes this company different is that the firm owns its supply chain logistics. The company has its own packing facilities, baking capabilities, distribution centers, and fleet of trucks to deliver fresh goods to its stores. Ratio Selection The use of ratio analysis can help a person evaluate the financial performance of a company. To perform ratio analysis one must retrieve the financial statements of the company. The two financial statements that are mostly used when performing ratio analysis are the income statement and the balance sheet. There are different categories of ratios that an analyst can utilize. The five categories of ratios are profitability, solvency, efficiency, liquidity, financial gearing, and investment. To evaluate Morrisons this paper uses a variety of financial ratios from the different categories mentioned. A profitability ratio that will be used in the paper is net margin. Net margin is calculated dividing net income by sales (Besley & Brigham, 2000). It is preferable to have a high net margin because higher net margins imply that the company is more profitable. Another profitability ratio of importance is the gross profit. The gross profit is calculated with the following formula. (Sales – CGS) / Sales (Weygandt & Kieso & Kimmel , 2002). High profit margins are preferable. Two additional metrics that will be used to evaluate Morrisons is return on assets and return on equity. Return on assets is calculated dividing net income by total assets, while return on equity is calculated dividing net income by total equity (Dictionary, 2011). An efficiency ratio that will be used to evaluate Morrisons is sales revenue per employee. Obtaining high sales revenue per employee is preferable because it implies that each employee of the company is helping the firm generate more money. Another efficiency ratio that will be used in the analysis of Morrisons is sales revenue to capital employed. The ratio is calculated dividing revenues by capital. A liquidity ratio that was selected for the Morrisons ratio analysis was the current ratio. The current ratio determines the capabilities of the company to pay off its short term debt (Investopedia, 2011). The formula to calculate current ratio is current assets divided by current liability. Two gearing ratios that will be used in the analysis of Morrisons are the debt ratio and the debt to equity ratio. The debt ratio is calculated by dividing total assets by total liabilities. The debt ratio measures the ability of the company to pay off its long term debt (Garrison & Noreen, 2003). The debt to equity ratio is calculated dividing total assets by total equity. The investment ratios chosen to perform the ratio analysis on

Compare and contrast(difference and similarity)between traditional Research Paper

Compare and contrast(difference and similarity)between traditional Yoruban marriage and traditional Korean marriage - Research Paper Example Of much interest is a deep delve into the understanding by a way of comparison, two cultures (marriage being the common denominator) that reveals elements inherent and unique to a particular community or groups of people. Providing perfect specimens under this study is the Yoruba and the Korean traditional marriages. It will be of interest to learn how communities separated far and wide; living several miles away from each other, with no basis of interaction then, could exhibit similar features in their marriage customs. More so, sharp contrasts in some of the features evident uniquely in either of the two undeniably confirms and gives them their cultural identity as far as marriage processes are concerned. Where everything is equal and normal, records Johnson ,113, a Yoruba traditional marriage involves three stages: an early intimation, a formal betrothal and marriage. In the first stage girls are marked out from childhood with or without their consent as intentioned for marriage to particular young men. No girl would get married without the parents’ consent and such was the basis for the betrothal stage or ‘Isihun’. It was accompanied by a ceremony where the parties involved feasted and offered sacrifices, the ‘Ebo Iyawo’ or the bride sacrifice. The final stage which is marriage could be carried out at any time of the year except during the fasts (Johnson, 114). The Korean traditional marriage on the other hand is a six stage process: Exchange of the letter of four pillars, selection of the wedding day, sending of wedding gifts, the marriage ceremony, the bridal room and the new path (Lee et al, 157) Insight into these stages are illuminated in the p assages below. Unique to the Korean culture is the letter of four pillars (saju) on which the year of birth, month, day and time of the bride or groom were written. Lee et al, 157, notes that the letter symbolized engagement. Arrangements of this nature are clearly absent in the Yoruba

Should The Supreme Court Essay Example for Free

Should The Supreme Court Essay The Supreme Court’s power of judicial review should not be strictly limited by a constitutional amendment because the simple fact what if you do a judgment that they are not in the right of? If the judge is proved wrong then it will be appealed. For an example we the people shouldn’t be judged because what if one commits the same crime and does it intentionally such as killing someone and then someone does it to protect them and their family from harm if someone broke into their home and was coming at them and the only thing was to kill them to keep from getting their children or self harmed. The cons of this is that what if we are wanting a law passed and it gets rejected and we the voters can’t have any say of it. For example switching books in the schools for more modern technology like Ipads what if the children don’t understand the work very well and needs more studying time, they won’t be allowed to take them home. They should make the law of going back to older days when all the technology wasn’t out just books, pencils, and paper! The pros is that the Judicial branch can have the power to view the laws of the other two branches and has an important role playing of the check and balancing system. So when you sit down and think about it its like they are too many chiefs and not enough Indians. They are sometimes to many decisions and too many judges at one time.

The Problems With Ship Breaking In Bangladesh Environmental Sciences Essay

The Problems With Ship Breaking In Bangladesh Environmental Sciences Essay Introduction Environmental degradation and depletion of resources are alarmingly increasing in developing countries due to lack effective legislations, non-compliance of international standards in ship breaking process. It is manifested mainly by pollution, deforestation, destruction of wetlands, depletion of soil nutrients, etc. In Bangladesh, both rapid population growth and a degraded environment create serious threats to the economic development. This leads to other serious problems such as poverty, malnutrition and illiteracy. Since the majority of people in Bangladesh derive their livelihoods from the use and extraction of all types of resources, the living condition in Bangladesh, especially of the poor, becomes extremely vulnerable to environmental damage  [1]  .  The instant paper is directed to scan the relevant literatures on the impact of ship breaking in Bangladesh and also to put forward some proposals to be undertaken to this end. Super tankers and giant cargo ships are the backbone of our global consumer society. Hundreds of meters long, ferrying millions of tons of goods across the globe, the perpendicular size of these immense vessels is awe inspiring. Even when these ships are not seaworthy anymore, and repairs are not inexpensively viable, the raw material it is constructed from has a greater value for other purposes. Construction of one such behemoth is a fascinating feat of engineering, however, the destruction and final resting place of these steel giants is even more intriguing. Ship breaking is the process that dismantles an obsolete vessels structure for scrapping or disposal. Conducted at a pier or dry dock or dismantling ship, it includes a wide range of activities, from removing all gears and equipment to cutting down the ships infrastructure (OSHA, 2001)  [2]  . Ship breaking although is demanding but a very risky process indeed. It involves pollution, environmental hazards, and health issues. Ship breaking was recognized as a highly mechanized task until the 1960s in the industrialized countries like the United States, United Kingdom, Germany and Italy, but as the costs of upholding environmental health and safety standards increased the activity moved towards the poor Asiatic states from the early 1980s. The industry since then took a different approach where the ship owners to maximise profits sent their vessels to the scrap yards of poor South Asian countries like India, Bangladesh and Pakistan where payment, health and safety requirements are minimal and workers are desperate for work. Ship breaking activities in Bangladesh is concentrated on the port city Chittagong on the Bay of Bengal. Ship breaking activities are being practiced in the coastal areas and have gained importance in the macro and micro-economy of poverty stricken Bangladesh. Rising demand of raw materials for re-rolling mills and other purposes has made ship breaking activity as one of the major character in the industrial revolution of Bangladesh. Bangladesh is dependant on its ship breaking industry for its domestic steel requirements, thus making it as one of the major resources for steel. This is why ship breaking industry is not subject to any environmental laws or health and safety regulations for workers in Bangladesh. Even though there is no such law regarding ship breaking and on top of that no one is even concerned about the environmental hazard which is leading the country to an outrageous environmental exposure. After the vessels end their navigability period, the owners send them to the shipyards in Chittagong to recover their valuable steel where about 95% of a vessel is recycled. However, these ships contain hazardous substances such as asbestos, lead paint and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB). During scrapping, by manual and basic methods, these toxic substances are released into the atmosphere. This phenomenon produces a strong and considerable contamination of the surrounding environment and lethal diseases into the workers. These activities exemplify both the potentialities and the dangers of an increasingly globalising economy.  [3]   PROBLEMS DUE TO SHIP BREAKING Ships built before the 1980s, contain many deadly materials. Ship breaking activities in Chittagong, Bangladesh pollute the soil, sea and rivers of the surrounding. Local fishing and agriculture as a livelihood are almost impossible over there due to the discharge of this toxic gases and oil pollution in the sea. This erosion of their traditional livelihoods drives more and more impoverished people to the dangerous shipyards. Samples taken from the yard shows contamination with high levels of mineral oil and toxic substances. Discharge of oil to the sea also results physical damage to the birds, mammals and marine organisms and their natural habitats. Wastes like blasting residue and paint chips contaminate the soil and surface water. Improper storage and disposal of scrap metals and wastes also causes lead contamination. Environmentally hazardous fumes evolve when metal and paint is heated during hot work. The pollution is both severe and long-standing. Unlike in Western countries w here there are stringent regulations on hazardous substances and health and safety measure, in Chittagong yard rules and regulations are rarely applied. Laws on health and safety matters although exists but are hardly enforced and moreover even if the law becomes stringent due to corrupt politics the ship owners apply their powers to withdraw the law and orders.  Following a High Court directive, the commerce ministry of Bangladesh incorporated a condition in its Import Policy Order 2009-2012, which said an exporter of a vessel had to submit a pre-cleaning certificate from the country of origin stating the ship was cleaned before exportation but then again the government amended the law allowing the Chittagong ship breaking industry to no longer require the documentation from the selling nations environmental authorities certifying vessels were free of toxic substances.  [4]  Ã‚  The Basel convention and several other international treaties laid down rules and regulations whic h states that ships that are built with deadly toxic substances shall not be exported for recycling unless they are pre-cleaned and has undergone a cleaning test. But in Chittagong ship breaking yard the owners in violation of the law import those toxic vessels without pre-cleaning. As a result of this violation, terrible poisons and toxic gases are released into the environment playing havoc with the health of the people and all living creature in the ecosystem. The workers in Chittagong yard are permanently exposed to toxic substances. They breathe in these toxic fumes and asbestos dust. Not only on the job, but also in the sleeping quarters nearby they inhale these toxic gases. One out of four workers is expected to contract cancer due to workplace poisons. This makes the Chittagong ship breaking industry the most deadly in the world. ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS DUE TO SHIP BREAKING Aside from the health of the yard workers, in recent years, ship breaking has become an issue of major  environmental concern. In addition to steel and other useful materials, however, ships contain many hazardous substances. Many ship breaking yards in developing nations have no  proper enforceable environmental law, enabling large quantities of highly toxic materials to escape into the environment causing serious health problems amongst the labours in the ship breaking yard, the local population and wildlife.  [5]  The hazards are as follows: Hazardous Substances Asbestos fibres, dusts PCBs PVC (combustion products) Heavy and toxic metals(lead, mercury, cadmium, copper, zinc etc. Welding fumes Organometallic substances (tributylin, etc.) Volatile organic compounds (solvents) Lack of hazard communication (storage, labelling, material safety data sheets) Inhalation in confined and enclosed spaces Batteries, fire-fighting liquids Compressed gas cylinders Physical Hazards Noise Vibration Extreme temperatures Poor illumination Biological Hazards Toxic marine organisms Animal bites Risk of communicable diseases transmitted by pests, vermin, rodents, insects and other animals that may infest the ship others) Infectious diseases (TB, malaria, dengue fever, hepatitis, respiratory infections, others) Ergonomic and Psychological Hazards Repetitive strain injuries, awkward postures, repetitive and monotonous work, excessive workload. Mental stress, strained human relations (aggressive behaviour, alcohol and drug abuse, violence) IMPACTS OF SHIP BREAKING DUE TO DISCHARGED POLLUTANTS Most hazardous materials nowadays are restricted or banned today but a ship built about 30 years ago still contains these materials. It also carries hazardous and flammable chemicals used for painting, repair and maintenance, etc. Cables and electrical and other control systems contain hazardous material and emit hazardous gases, if burned. The paint coat, contaminated air, soil and water when torched or scraped, is hazardous for human and the environment. The protection of health and of the workers handling the hazardous waste is of crucial importance.  [6]   Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) POPs are chemicals that are highly toxic, remain intact in the environment for long periods, become widely distributed geographically, bio accumulate through the food web, accumulate in the fatty tissue of living organisms and pose a risk of causing adverse effects to human population, wildlife and the environment.  [7]  This group of priority pollutants consists of pesticides such as DDT, industrial chemicals such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and unintentional by-products of industrial processes such as dioxins, furans and orgaotins. POPs are transported across international boundaries far from their sources no matter wherever they are used, even to regions where they have never been used or produced. Due to its emission the ecosystems particularly becomes risky because of the long-range environmental transportation and bio-magnification of these substances. Consequently, POPs pose a threat to the environm ent and to human health all over the globe. Exposure to POPs may cause acute, medium or long-term impacts. It also gives rise to cancer and other related diseases. Chittagong ship breaking industry is a prospective basis of these fatal chemicals of POPs. Asbestos Asbestos is the name given to a group of six different fibrous minerals (Amosite, Chrysotile, Crocidolite, and the fibrous varieties of Tremolite, Actinolite, and Anthophyllite) that occurs naturally in the environment. All forms of asbestos are hazardous, and inhalation of these fibres can cause severe diseases. On the ship breaking beaches of Chittagong, asbestos fibres and flocks fly around in the open air and the labours over there take out asbestos insulation materials with their bare hands without any safety precautions. Workers who repeatedly breathe in asbestos fibres with lengths greater than or equal to 5ÃŽÂ ¼m may develop a slow build-up of a disease called asbestosis. a scar-like tissue in the lungs and in the membrane that surrounds the lungs. This is a serious disease and can eventually lead to disability or death in people exposed to high amounts of asbestos over a long period. Asbestos workers also have increased chances of getting lung cancer as well. Oil Pollution Oil is a highly volatile compound composed of mainly hydrocarbon, sulphur containing compounds etc. Approximately 75% of the constituents of oil are hydrocarbons. As a result ship breaking, oil residues and the other refuses are being spilled and mixed with soil and water in the beach. In Chittagong yard the beach is black due to oil spills, and fishes have already started to disappear as per the researchers report. In freshwater environments, perhaps the most dangerous problem is contamination of drinking water sources. Food sources, such as fish and crustaceans both marine and fresh water, may be tainted and the consumption of tainted food causes human health problems and also loss for export trade in foreign market. Oil pollution also threatens the livelihoods of fisherman. Impact of ship breaking on the surrounding environment and coastal community Toxic oil and metallic substances through intake of affected fish, causes human health hazards. In ship breaking areas various refuse and disposable materials are discharged and spilled from scraped ships and it often gets mixed with the beach soil .The scrap from the ships is staked haphazardly on the sea shore, leaving behind an accumulation of metal fragments and rust in the soil. These together with extensive human and mechanical activities often go on as routine work for the scrapping of ships in that area as a result the beach soil loses its binding properties and this accelerate the rate and the amount of shore erosion and increase the turbidity of sea water of the surrounding area. Disruption of bio-diversity in the long run may also destroy the suitability of human settlement. During the breaking period accidental death sometimes occurs. Due to lack of proper sanitation and drinking water workers suffer from water borne diseases. As the sound pollution is a regular phenomenon during dismantling, inhabitants of the adjacent areas live in a painful situation .The poor coastal community get a variety of employment opportunities in the industry and it turns into a way of livelihood to them. On the other hand social crime, abuse of drugs and illegal activities increases due to ship breaking activities in that area. As the commercially important species are replaced by low priced species and scarcity of fish, many coastal fishermen are leaving their hereditary profession and moving around everyday as environmental refugees in a state of under employment and poverty to unemployment and grim poverty. SHIP BREAKING AND INTERNATIONAL LAW The Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent (PIC) (1998) PIC is internationally applied to the trans-boundary movement of hazardous waste. The Rotterdam Convention, subjects to the Prior Informed Consent procedure for 30 hazardous pesticides and 11 industrial chemicals such as chlordane, chlordimeform, chlorobenzilate, Asbestos, PBBs, PCBs etc. Most of these hazardous substances are present in ships that were built 20 to 30 years back. Countries lacking adequate infrastructure to monitor the import and use of such hazardous substances were in violence of the law. In terms of ship breaking, owners have to make a declaration of hazardous substances on board, on arrival at the yard for dismantling. However, PIC by itself is not sufficient to stop unsafe scrapping. What is needed is that the country from which the toxic ship arrives needs to notify the importing country. The importing country can then take measures for the adequate treatment of these hazardous substances. But unfortunately in the case of Chittagong ship yard it is often seen that end of life vessels have been exported without the importing authorities being alerted. The Basel Convention Articles 4 and 6 of the Basel Convention impose strict conditions that go further than the PIC convention on the trans-boundary movement of hazardous wastes. It imposes an obligation of due diligence, on all ship owners. All parties are required to provide information about a proposed trans-boundary movement of hazardous wastes, to the countries concerned. Three elements must be proved for the violation of the Basel Convention to the issue of ship breaking: (i) Proof that the waste will not be properly dealt with by the ship breaking country. (ii) The legal recognition that ships are waste. (iii) An established intention to discardby the owner of the ship.  [8]  This convention is very much applicable to the Chittagong yard but unfortunately they are hardly followed by both importing and exporting parties of the yard.  [9]   United Nations Environmental Program (UNEP) UNEP is responsible for the implementation of the Basel Convention. It is currently drafting guidelines on the environmentally sound management for the full and partial dismantling of ships, in order to provide recommendations on procedures and practices to be implemented to attain Environmental Sound Management (ESM) in ship breaking yards. International labour Organization (ILO) The International Labour Organization (ILO) is the UN specialized agency which seeks the promotion of social justice and internationally recognized human and labour rights. The guidelines suggest a national framework defining the general responsibilities and rights for employers, workers and regulatory authorities in ship breaking. In addition, the guidelines also provides recommendations on safe ship breaking operations including the management of hazardous substances, protection and preventative measures for workers against hazards and suggestions for a competency based training program. The ILO approach is to facilitate step-by-step improvements to the practice of dismantling ships on beaches. If these approaches are applied, the Chittagong ship breaking yard will reach a satisfactory quality.  [10]  The ILO guideline suggests the: Ensuring there is an inventory of hazardous materials on board; Decontamination and gas-freeing; Planning for safe demolition; Recycling and; Safe waste management. The International Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) MARPOL is a combination of two treaties adopted in 1973 and 1978 respectively and updated by amendments through the years. It is the main international convention covering prevention of pollution of the marine environment by ships from operational or accidental causes. In the issue of ship breaking MARPOL would apply to the discharges that occur from ships sent for ship breaking, which take place within the territorial waters of the ship breaking country. Practically this means that once the ship is delivered to a ship breaking yard any discharge, notably of oil or oily mixtures will be prohibited under this convention. Such oily wastes must be retained on board or discharged to reception facilities in port.  [11]   International Maritime Organization (IMO) In December 2003, the IMO issued a document entitled Guidelines on Ship Recycling. The Guideline is urbanized to give advice to all relevant stakeholders in the recycling process. The Guidelines suggest practical measures for all stages of the ship recycling process. They are: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ New ship and equipment design, in particular to minimize the use to hazardous substances and waste generation as well as to facilitate recycling and the removal of hazardous materials; à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Preparation of a Green Passport for new and existing ships; à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Selection of a recycling facility and preparation of a ship for recycling including a ship Recycling Plan and;   à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Roles for primary stakeholders including flag, port and recycling states, the Basel Convention, the ILO and the shipping industry. The Guidelines seeks to give confidence to recycling as the best means of ship disposal. In general, the Guidelines take the view that the responsibility for environment and worker protection in ship recycling facilities must respite with the recycling feature itself and with the regulatory authorities of the country in which it operates. Nevertheless, it is noted that ship owners and other stakeholders also have a responsibility to address the issues involved. The International Chamber of Shipping (ICS) The aim of ICS is to encourage high standards of operation and the provision of high quality and efficient shipping services. It also strives for a regulatory environment which supports safe shipping operations, protection of the environment and adherence to internationally adopted standards and procedures regarding ship breaking. ICS also promotes properly considered international regulation of shipping and oppose unilateral and regional action by governments. ICS took the initiative to establish an Industry Working Party on Ship Recycling (IWPSR) on the 23rd of February 1999. The IWPSR established an Industry Code of Practice on ship recycling in August 2001. This Code of Practice is the basis for the IMOs own guidelines. It is aimed at the ship owners, and encourages for the present shipping companies to initiate and complete a programme to identify and record, as far as is practicable, on each of their existing ships, any potentially hazardous material, as well as to make every e ffort to minimize the amount of potentially hazardous materials on board of the ship and while recycling of ships. Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) The Stockholm Convention (Article 3.2) restricts the import and export of POPs to cases where, for example, the purpose is environmentally sound disposal. It also requires that POPs may not be transported across international boundaries without taking into account relevant international rules, standards and guidelines (Article6.1). The Stockholm Convention requires Parties to take measures to reduce or eliminate releases of POPs from intentional production and use (Article 3), unintentional production (Article 5) and stockpiles and wastes (Article 6). Concepts of Best Available Techniques (BAT) and Best Environmental Practices (BEP) are to be further elaborated by the Conference of the Parties. Bangladesh being a signatory government of the convention must take measures to eliminate or reduce the release of POPs into the environment in the Chittagong ship breaking yard.  [12]   The Universal Declaration of Human Rights The issue of human rights in ship breaking yards came to the attention of the international community in the 1990s through the concerted actions of different non-governmental organizations, above all Greenpeace, trade unions such as the International Transport Workers Federation and the International Metalworkers Federation, and intergovernmental bodies, such as the International Labour Organization. The awful working conditions and the dangers to the health and safety of the workers, publicized by several investigative media reports, led to a public outcry, which in turn generated an international mobilization on the issue.  [13]   SOLUTIONS FOR A SAFER ENVIRONMENT Abide by the law All the international treaties and the international UN bodies must together act against unacceptable ship breaking practices. The yard owners and the workers must have the appropriate knowledge regarding the law, health and safety issues and they also have to be encouraged to abide by the law as requires. The government must take reasonable steps to make the law obligatory to abide by on the ship breaking yards. Stop dumping toxic ships The shipping industry is responsible for its own vessels. They should take immediate measures to prevent pollution of the environment and protect the workers that dismantle their ships. They can do that by decontaminating and gas-freeing their ship-for-scrap before export to developing countries.  [14]   Gas Free Certificates No ship recycling facility shall undertake any cutting or dismantling activity onboard a vessel until a ship has been tested for flammability and a Gas-Free for hot works certificate granted. This test must take place at the ship recycling facility just prior to any cutting or dismantling taking place. Prevent pollution The shipping industry is responsible for its own vessels. They should take immediate measures to prevent pollution of the environment and protect the workers that dismantle their ships. They can do that by decontaminating and degassing their ship-for-scrap before export to Asia. Governments Role The government of Bangladesh should formulate and implement a national policy and principles for safe and sustainable ship breaking after having consultation with relevant organizations, employers and workers. They should also include this sector under the ministry of industry defined by the Factory Act, 1965 and formulate a policy so that, workers rights and welfare; occupational safety health (OHP) could be ensured and it could be eco-friendly as well. Usage of Technological Renovation Ship-owners should gradually make their vessels cleaner by the usage of better technology machineries during the recycling process. They should provide their workers with more and more safe and precautionary machineries that do not risk the workers life. During maintenance and survey stops, hazardous materials should be replaced with clean alternatives. In addition, ship-owners should, together with shipbuilders and classification societies, commit to the development of clean ships to avoid future disposal problems.  [15]   CONCLUSION Though in Bangladesh, ship breaking is now considered as a formal industry by law but the activities in real are not at all formalized yet. There is no enforcement of the labour laws, no legal binding framework to ensure Bangladesh comply with international human rights and environmental commitments. Above all, there are no consolidated policies or strategies or guidelines in Bangladesh for ship dismantling and there is a serious lack of communication between the responsible Ministries. According to several researchers the whole coastal area in Chittagong is in high risk by pollution generated from the ship breaking activities. Toxic chemicals and hazardous materials are not managed in an environmentally sound way; the beach is black due to oil spills, and fishes have started to disappear. Also the ship breaking activities has impact on the human health, directly to the workers; it has impacts on the food chain, on physiochemical properties of seawater, inter tidal sediments and soil and above all the on the biodiversity . As Bangladesh is one of the largest countries in respect of ship breaking activities, the subsequent impact on the environment and violation of human rights in the ship breaking yards drew the attention of different concerned bodies around the world as well as within Bangladesh in recent years. If the ship breaking industry is to bring development in the country, the same shall also be applied to ensure minimization of pollution effect. A longer stretch along the seashore is in no way justified for continuation of this business. Rather a certain separate zone like a dockyard should be selected by the competent authority to be undertaken at the right time, before it is too late. Considering the vital role of ship breaking in national economy ship breaking can not be stopped. Rather a sustainable approach should be taken to minimize the negative consequences of ship breaking activities in our coastal zone.

Applications of Developmental Psychology to Practice

Applications of Developmental Psychology to Practice Title: Within your chosen topic area, Health Psychology In Action: Children and the development, (chapter 3 by Tony Cassidy) discuss the ways in which developmental psychology can inform practice. Psychology is a cumulative scientific study of the mind based on empirically driven theories that link experience, behaviour and the brain. Health psychology, despite being a relatively new branch of applied psychology, is following that exact path. It is the study of the psychological processes of health, illness and healthcare systems (Cassidy 2006). While the breadth of the discipline is far reaching, its core goal is the use psychological theories and interventions to prevent damaging behaviour. Perhaps the mind begins as a blank slate and we start of as perfect idiots. At the other extreme, it could be like a Swiss-army knife, a collection of innately structured neural modules or perhaps it starts off undifferentiated and becomes modular. Is it our cultural learning or meta-representation that shapes our behaviour? (Wexler 2006) There is no shortage of one-line theories of human nature. However, when it comes to children there is very little room for error. There is overwhelming evidence documenting the effect of early childhood experiences with their long term health and associated behaviours. For example, stress in early life can inhibit neurogenesis in later adulthood (Tucker 2002; Karten et al 2005), but to what extent does such developmental theory actually inform real life practice? Or in other words, are the current initiatives used by health psychologists working in the way theories predict? There isnt room for an exhaustive search here and so this piece will focus on a few practical examples. More than 400 million adults worldwide are obese according to the World Health Organization (2004) and children from many difference socio-cultural backgrounds are at risk (Cassidy 2006). There are a barrage of studies contemplating how our surroundings are responsible for the growing obesity problem (Brownell 2004). These papers all point towards two key issues: (a) The easy availability of foods that are high in fat. (b) Poor opportunities for exercise. While it is intuitively obvious why people become obese, the relationship between weight and behaviour is still highly complex and health psychology has attempted to identify some of the reasons behind the obesity epidemic. For example, a large body of evidence suggests that the family environment is the major source of influence over childhood eating behaviour (Rivett 2008). Psychologists have attempted to influence childrens food choices through the application of social learning theory in programmes such as The Food Dudes Program (Tucker 2002). The researchers developed a video of four older children who appeared to gain super powers for eating fruit and vegetables. The basic premiss being that a child is more likely to imitate the behaviour of a person they admire and is consistent with a behaviouralist approach because there are rewards for behaviours which are desirable. Similar programs have borrowed from Gratton et al (2007) and have used the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) as a framework to promote childrens fruit and vegetable consumption. TPB posits that behavioural intentions are the proximal determinants of actual behaviour, with the perception of control being an important co-determinant of behaviour (Gratton et al 2007). The programme simply took two groups of children and showed one group ways in which they could make time in the day to eat five-a-day and another group on how they could overcome motivational barriers to achieving this goal. Both interventions were found to be successful. Similar programmes encouraging children to take exercise also exist (Cassidy 2006). Despite some success stories, the effects have been disappointing in the long-term with such programmes (Brownell 2004). Surrounded by a social construct implying that being overweight is normal and acceptable, psychologists are presented with a constant struggle. However, by improving childrens own understanding of illness, this can promote healthy actions by groups and in tandem with a new TPB framework, help improve future lifestyle choices (Williams Binnie 2002). The focus of preventive intervention is also a key area of theoretical implementation in health psychology. This fits with a biopsychosocial model where biological, psychological and social factors are implicated in both health and illness. Prevention cannot focus on only a single factor. For example, drug misuse in adolescence, both legal and illegal, is an issue across the developed world which can be tied into other more serious health concerns (Cassidy 2006). Three aspects of family background have been found to predict risk of drug use: parental involvement in crime, poor relationships with parents and unsupportive child-parent interactions (Mazanov Byrne 2008). Interventions have sought to use social inoculation theory developed by McGuire in the 1960s the basic ideology being that decisions are made in the context of social pressure. More recent work has attempted to model what makes an adolescent successfully quit smoking and found that past behaviour explained more than four times the variance of other factors (Mazanov Byrne 2008). On the other hand, family environment is evidently a key area of theoretical and subsequent practical intervention. Recent research has proposed that family therapy is currently undergoing radical change, but this change seems to be driven by more contextual factors as opposed to new theoretical advances. (Rivett 2008) However, any interventions are often clouded by the prevalence of problematic behaviour patterns including impulsivity and rebelliousness making behaviour difficult to predict: The 14 year old has a very simple decision to make. When he sees a light out of the corner of his eye, he is supposed to ignore it. (Powell 2006, p. 865) This is an extremely easy task and even 8 year olds can do it correctly half of the time, but it requires suppressing a natural impulse not the strong point of most teenagers. In this simple test the teenager performs as well as adults do, but inside his head, a lot more cognitive effort is required, as shown by recent functional magnetic resonance imaging studies (Powell 2006). Are outdated theories keeping up with new physiological knowledge or should health care be expanded amongst the young moving away from traditional approaches and into the community? (Williams et al 2002) Health psychology is a new and exciting discipline and is constantly surprising both the academics and applied psychological communities. From enhanced wound healing after an emotional disclosure intervention (Weinman et al 2008) to simply using a distraction intervention to ease the pain of pre-school children undergoing injections (Dahlquist et al 2002), there is a constant stream of new theories and interventions. However, no one theory is going to answer and treat all our health problems and there is always an inherent danger when generalizing to large populations. There is a tendency for fragmentation within modern applied psychology that inevitably results from the growth and development of individual areas. References Brownell, D. K. (2004) Food Fight, London: McGraw-Hill Cassidy, T. (2006). Health Psychology: children and development. In Wood et al. (eds) Developmental Psychology in Action. Blackwell Publishing. p. 101-135 Dahlquist, M. L., Pendley, S. J., Landthrip, S. D., Jones, L. C., Steuber, P. C. (2002) Distraction intervention for preschoolers undergoing intramuscular injections and subcutaneous port access. Health Psychology, 21 (1), 94-99 Gratton, L., Povey, R., Carter, D. (2007). Promoting childrens fruit and vegetable consumption: Interventions using the Theory of Planned Behaviour as a framework. British Journal of Health Psychology, 12, 639-650 Karten, J. G. Y., Olariu, A., Cameron, A. (2005). Stress in early life inhibits neurogenesis in adulthood. Trends in Neuroscience, 28 (4), 171-172 Powell, K. (2006). How does the teenage brain work? Nature, 442 (24), 865-867 Rivett, M. (2008). Towards a metamorphosis: current developments in the theory and practice of family therapy. Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 13 (3), 102-106 Tucker, M. C. (2002). Expanding pediatric psychology beyond hospital walls to meet the health care needs of ethnic minority children. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 27 (4), 315-323 Weinman, J., Ebrecht, M., Suzanne, S., Walburn, J., Dyson, M. (2008). Enhanced wound healing after emotional disclosure intervention. British Journal of Health Psychology, 13, 95-102 Williams, M. J., Binnie, M. L. (2002). Childrens concepts of illness: An intervention to improve knowledge. British Journal of Health Psychology, 7, 129-147

What Is Art :: essays research papers

Tolstoy wrote, in What is Art? â€Å" If a man is infected by the author’s condition of soul, if he feels this emotion and this union with others, then the object which has effected this is art: but if there be no such infection, if there be not this union with the same author and others who are moved by the same work-then it is not art?â€Å" â€Å"The Death of Ivan Ilych† is art by this criteria. Tolstoy’s writing keeps my attention throughout â€Å"The Death of Ivan Ilych† and awakens my soul. I have never read any literature of Leo Tolstoy, and I could not walk away from the story, I wondered what happened next. It makes me realize how important life is to be treated. This work of art expresses to me Tolstoy’s views on life and death. The short story gives examples of how a person can live life the wrong way. In reading the â€Å"The Death of Ivan Ilych†, many feelings stir up inside me because I can relate his experience with my grandfather that died of cirrhosis of the liver. Tolstoy reaches the soul because he describes Ivan’s life occurrence through his spiritual revelation. He observed a heartbreaking death of his brother. In reading, â€Å"The Death of Ivan Ilych† Tolstoy portrays Ivan as a thoughtless and selfish man. I see Ivan as a frightened individual; afraid of what life has to offer. â€Å"Ivan experienced happiness only in his childhood† (Tolstoy 1179). He decides to go to the School of Law. He marries because he feels it is right not because he is in love, and his peers approve. I feel for Ivan because everyone knows that a person cannot be happy if one marries for the reasons Ivan did. After all, should not the basis of a marriage be love? Love brings happiness to our lives. Ivan does not have the happiness that love could bring. I get the impression that Ivan does not receive much love throughout his life; which makes it very hard to show love for his wife. He is incapable of loving someone because he does not know how to love. Ivan does try to give these things to his family. However, He tries to impress his colleagues. Ivan decorates his house with antiques, carefully scrutinizing as a means to pretend to have money. Ivan begins to focus on his career because of his unhappiness at home.